Molecular cytogenetic characterization of two independent karyotypic anomalies in a patient with severe mental retardation and juvenile idiopathic arthritis
We report on a patient with severe mental retardation, dysmorphic features as well as juvenile idiopathic arthritis. G-banding indicated two independent karyotypic anomalies in this patient: an interstitial deletion del(X)(p21p22.3) and a rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7, which represents a direct insertion, ins(7;1)(q36;p13.2p31.2). Non-random inactivation of the paternally derived del(X) chromosome was observed in blood lymphocytes and fibroblasts. High resolution analysis of the rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7 subsequently revealed the additional submicroscopic deletion of at least 5 Mb at the 1p13.2 breakpoint. The deletion occurred on the paternal chromosome and encompasses the PTPN22 gene, already known to be associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Our findings underline the importance of closely investigating the breakpoint regions of apparently balanced rearrangements in patients with abnormal phenotypes since complex chromosomal rearrangements (CCRs) may turn out to be unbalanced.
Structural chromosome aberrations are evident in ∼0.5% of neonates tested by conventional cytogenetic analysis (Jacobs et al. 1992). In most instances, apparently balanced structural chromosomal abnormalities are not associated with any obvious clinical phenotype. However, unfavorable chromosomal segregation during meiosis would be expected to yield unbalanced gametes that could then lead either to reproductive failure or to the production of phenotypically abnormal offspring. Around 6% of apparently balanced de novo chromosome rearrangements identified antenatally are associated with phenotypic abnormalities (Warburton 1991). A subgroup of such cases represents complex chromosomal rearrangements (CCRs) that involve more than two breakpoints and an exchange of genetic material between two or more chromosomes (Pai et al. 1980). De novo CCRs are in many instances associated with mental retardation and congenital abnormalities. The clinical phenotype in such cases could be consequent either to the disruption of the structure and/or expression of genes in the vicinity of the breakpoints or to subtle imbalances caused by the loss or gain of specific sequences caused by submicroscopic deletions or duplications at the breakpoint sites. Detailed characterization using molecular cytogenetic techniques or array comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) is therefore necessary to detect such sequence gains and losses since many CCRs appear to be balanced at the level of G-banded chromosomes (Wirth et al. 1999; Vermeulen et al. 2004; Gribble et al. 2005).
Here we report on a female patient with severe developmental and psychomotor retardation suggestive of an unbalanced chromosomal aberration. In addition, the patient suffered from severe juvenile idiopathic arthritis, a clinical phenotype that is somewhat atypical of a patient with a complex chromosomal rearrangement. Karyotypic analysis indicated the presence of two de novo structural chromosome anomalies: an interstitial deletion on Xp and a rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7. Using various molecular cytogenetic techniques as well as polymorphic marker analysis, this rearrangement was shown to be unbalanced, being accompanied by a submicroscopic deletion at the 1p13.2 breakpoint.
Case report
The female patient was born, after an uneventful pregnancy, to a 30 year-old mother and a 31 year-old father both of Caucasian origin. She has two healthy sisters, one 3 years older, the other 2 years younger. The patient presented at the age of 2 years with severe somatic developmental delay [weight: 10.4 kg (10.P); height: 78.5 cm (3.P); fronto-occipital head circumference: 44.3 cm (<3.P)], which persisted, to the age of 15. Her motor and intellectual development was also significantly retarded. Microcephaly and persistent salivation were evident. A kidney duplication on the left side came to clinical attention as a result of sonographic examination consequent to recurring urinary tract infections. No other organ anomalies were observed. A broad chest was noted, one of the stigmata of Turner syndrome; however, cubitus valgus and a short webbed neck with superior hairline were absent.
Owing to epileptic seizures with tonic attacks, therapy with an anticonvulsive agent (Liskantin) was initiated at the age of 3 years and no further seizures occurred. Anomalies of the cranial nerves were not apparent.
At the age of nine, psychomotor retardation was pronounced. She attended a school for handicapped children, was able to speak one or two words and to understand short requests given without gestures. She could not read, write or calculate. The investigation of the musculoskeletal system revealed swelling of the wrists as well as flexion contractures of the elbows and digital joints due to juvenile idiopathic arthritis [rheumatoid factor (RF)-negative, ANA-positive, HLA-27-negative]. The knee joints were thickened and the patient had a conspicuous clumsy gait with double-sided reduced motility of the ankle joints. The polyarthritis was treated with methotrexate.
At the age of 15, her height was 148 cm (<3.P) and weight: 54 kg (>25.P) with a body mass index of 24.6 (50.–60.P). Her fronto-occipital head circumference was 51 cm (<3.P). Although she could only speak a few words, her understanding of spoken language had improved significantly. However, during her daily life, she was completely dependent and needed assistance. Upon investigation, short fourth metacarpals were noted as well as stretch inhibition of the elbows and knee joints. She experienced regular menstruation since the age of 11 but she lacked secondary sexual characteristics. An ovarian cyst was removed at age 14. Several dysmorphic features were noted including hypertelorism, short palpebral fissures, short naso-labial distance, flat philtrum but long nasal septum, deep-set dysplastic backwards rotating large ears, bilateral clinodactyly V, smooth palms with only weakly established creases and wide intermammillary distances.
Material and methods
FISH analyses
Chromosome spreads were prepared from PHA-stimulated blood lymphocytes taken from the patient and her parents. BAC clones were purchased from the BACPAC Resources Center (http://www.bacpac.chori.org/) and DNA was isolated using the Plasmid Midi Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). FISH probes were prepared by labeling BAC DNA with either biotin-16-dUTP (Roche-Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany) or digoxygenin-11-dUTP (Roche-Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany).
Signals of biotinylated FISH probes were detected with FITC-avidin and biotinylated anti-avidin (Vector, Burlingame, USA). Where probes were labeled with digoxygenin-11-dUTP, the signals were detected in a first step with anti-digoxygenin antibodies produced in mouse, then with rabbit anti-mouse antibodies conjugated with Texas-Red, and finally in a third step with anti-rabbit antibodies also conjugated with Texas-Red (Dianova, Hamburg, Germany). In addition, the subtelomeric FISH probes for chromosome 7, TelVysion 7q and 7p (Abbott-Vysis Inc., Downers Grove, USA) were used. Slides were counterstained with diamidino-phenylindole (DAPI) and mounted with Vectashield antifade solution (Vector, Burlingame, USA). Whole chromosome painting probes for chromosomes 1, 7 and X (WCP-1, WCP-7, WCP-X) were purchased from Abbott Laboratories (North Chicago, USA).
PCR analysis and determination of the X inactivation pattern
DNA was extracted from peripheral blood and from skin fibroblast cell cultures using the DNAeasy isolation kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). To determine whether the Xp deletion occurred on the maternal or paternal X chromosome, four polymorphic markers (DXS8105, DXS8019, DXS8051 and DXS7108) from within the deleted interval were investigated. The X-inactivation status of the androgen receptor (AR) locus at Xq13 was investigated by analyzing the methylation status of the CpG island adjacent to the polymorphic CAG repeat in exon 1 of the AR gene using primers ARP1 (5′ TCC AGA ATC TGT TCC AGA GCG TGC 3′) and ARP2 (5′ GCT GTG AAG GTT GCT GTT CCT CAT 3′) labeled with 6FAM. After complete digestion with HpaII, PCR was performed and the resulting products were separated on a 3100 DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, USA).
Analysis of polymorphic markers on chromosome 1
Polymorphic markers D1S119 and D1S418, labeled with 6FAM, were analyzed by PCR and capillary gel electrophoresis to determine the parental origin of the deletion on chromosome 1 using DNA isolated from blood samples of the patient, her sister and her parents.
Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH)
CGH was performed as described by Kallioniemi et al. (1992). DNA of the patient was labeled with biotin-16-dUTP and the normal reference DNA with digoxigenin-11-dUTP, by means of standard nick translation.
Results
Chromosome analysis by G-banding
Karyotype analyses of the patient performed at the ages of 2 and 15 years revealed a large deletion on Xp as well as a rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7. The latter was interpreted as a direct (as opposed to an inverted) insertion of the segment 1p13.2-31.2 into the long arm of chromosome 7. According to the G-banding pattern, the karyotype was: 46,XX,ins(7;1)(q36;p13.2p31.2), del(X)(p21p22.3) or in rather more detail: 46,XX,ins(7;1)(7pter → 7q36::1p31.2 → 1p13.2::7q36 → 7qter;1pter → 1p31.2::1p13.2 → 1qter), del(X)(pter → p22.3::p21 → qter) (Figs. 1 and 2). Both chromosomal aberrations were observed in all metaphases analyzed (N = 50). Parental chromosomes appeared to be structurally normal.
Fig 1
Partial G-band karyotype of the patient. Chromosomal deletions on 1p (der(1)) and Xp, and an insertion on 7q (der(7)) are evident
Fig 2
Assignment of the breakpoint regions of the rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7 according to the analysis of G-banded chromosomes. The rearrangement was interpreted as follows: ins(7;1)(q36;p13.2p31.2) or in greater detail: ins(7;1)(7pter → 7q36::1p31.2 → 1p13.2::7q36 → 7qter;1pter → 1p31.2∷1p13.2 → 1qter). The arrowhead indicates the position of the submicroscopic deletion in1p13.2
FISH analysis
To confirm the insertion, FISH was performed with whole-chromosome painting probes for chromosomes 1, 7 and X (Fig. 3A–C). This analysis revealed that the insertion into 7q36 involved material from chromosome 1 rather than from the X-chromosome. Using subtelomeric probes that hybridize to distal 7q36, the telomeric region of patient chromosome 7q was shown to be retained (Table 1, Fig. 3D). Thus, the insertion of chromosome 1-derived material into 7q36 occurred proximal to probe RP11-620M21. To demarcate the deletion on the X chromosome more precisely, FISH was performed with the BACs listed in Table 2. The interstitial Xp deletion was found to encompass at least 22 Mb and hence is predicted to include the 15 disease-associated genes listed in Table 3. Defects in several of these genes are already known to be associated with X-linked mental retardation. The deletion does not encompass the SHOX and ARSE genes, which are retained and located distal to the deletion. The proximal deletion boundary maps telomeric to the DMD gene, which is not itself included within the deletion interval.
Fig 3
(A) FISH analyses with WCP-X on patient chromosomes indicated that the material deleted from one of the X-chromosomes had not been inserted anywhere else in the genome. (B) FISH analysis with WCP-7. The insertion on der(7q) is denoted by an arrow. (C) FISH analysis with WCP-1. The arrow indicates the der(7) chromosome bearing the inserted material from chromosome 1. (D) FISH analysis with subtelomeric probes TelVysion hybridizing to 7q (red) and 7p (green). The subtelomeric region on der(7), identified by an arrow, has been retained despite the insertion of the region 1p13.2-31.2. [The mixed Telvision probe also yields signals within the subtelomeric region of chromosome 15]
Table 1
FISH results with probes hybridizing to the distal 7q36 region
BAC or probe
Accession number/locus (size)
Position on 7q36a
FISH patternb
RP13-620M21
AC104594
153436862–153591526
Signal on distal q36 on the der(7)
RP11-331D5
AC006372
156873737–157064382
Signal on distal q36 on the der(7)
TelVysion 7q
VYJyRM2000 STS 2000H
Unknown, but positivefor marker D7S427 from 158595998–158596198
Signal on distal q36 on the der(7)
a Nucleotide numbering according to the Ensembl release 43, NCBI build 36
b The signal was noted at the very distal end of band q36, distal to the insertion from chromosome 1
Table 2
Results of FISH analyses to investigate the del(X)(p21p22.3)
BAC/PAC or probe
Accession number
Position on Xpa
FISH-results
RP13-309C18
BX119906
1507117–1542782
nd
RP11-261P4
AL683870
1541783–1704159
nd
RP13-297E16
AL683807
1745261–1935085
nd
RP11-449L4
AL672040
1933087–2050383
nd
RP11-325D5
AC079176
2311675–2497952
nd
RP11-146D5
AC138085
2714199–2790130
nd
RP11-325L9
AC108682
3014044–3088186
nd
RP11-631N21
AC073493
3793093–4004514
del
RP11-413F15
AC073617
4547336–4698637
del
RP11-615L18
AC095353
5112706–5254705
del
RP11-769N24
AC078989
5554435–5749149
del
RP11-126O22
AC073488
9179481–9249873
del
RP1-108M6
AC003036
9410712–9533914
del
RP1-167A22
AC002349
10388548–10548410
del
RP11-431J24
AC078993
15878386–16092386
del
RP11-421K1
AL732578
18814681–19005998
del
RP11-265D5
AC107612
24841779–24935667
del
RP5-1147O16
AL031542
30896993–33117215
nd
nd, not deleted; del, deleted
a Ensembl release 31.35d
Table 3
Genes in Xp21-p22.3 deleted in the patient and included in OMIM morbid map
Gene symbol
Gene description
Associated disease
NLGN4a
Neuroligin 4
X-linked mental retardation, autism
VCXA
Variably charged protein X-A
X-linked mental retardation
STSa
Steryl-sulfatase precursor
Ichtyosis
VCX
Variably charged protein X-B1
X-linked mental retardation
VCXB
Variably charged protein X-B
X-linked mental retardation
KAL1a
Anosmin 1
Kallmann syndrome
TBL1Xb
Transducin-beta-like-1
Possibly involved in the pathogenesis of ocular albinism with late-onset sensorineural deafness phenotype
GPR143b
G protein-coupled receptor 143
Ocular albinism 1
MID1b
Midline 1
Opitz/BBB syndrome
OFD1a
Orofaciodigital syndrome type I
Orofaciodigital syndrome type I
FANCBc
Fanconi anemia complementation group B
Fanconi anemia
NHSb
Nance-Horan syndrome
Nance-Horan syndrome (congenital cataracts and dental anomalies)
X-linked mental retardation, hydranencephaly and abnormal genitalia
IL1RAPL1
Interleukin 1 receptor accessory protein-like 1
X-linked mental retardation
a Escape from X-inactivation according to Carrel and Willard (2005)
b Heterogeneity with regard to escape from X-inactivation of this gene has been observed by Carrel and Willard (2005)
c The gene is inactivated according to Carrel and Willard (2005)
According to the G-banding analysis, the 1p13.2-31.2 region became inserted into chromosome 7q36 (Fig. 2). Since the patient suffers from severe juvenile chronic arthritis and the PTPN22 gene (implicated in susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis; Michou et al. 2007) maps to 1p13.2, we investigated whether this gene had been affected by the chromosomal rearrangement. FISH analysis demonstrated that the PTPN22 gene, spanned by clone RP5-1073O3, was heterozygously deleted in the patient since it did not hybridize to either the der(1) or the der(7) chromosomes (data not shown). This finding implied that the rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7 is unbalanced and is associated with a deletion of chromosome 1 at the proximal breakpoint. To determine the size of this deletion, further FISH analysis was performed employing the BAC/PAC clones listed in Table 4. The chromosome 1 deletion was found to encompass at least 5.1 Mb but less than 12.7 Mb, as deduced from the positions of the BAC clones investigated. FISH analysis of BAC RP11-478L17 from 1p13.2 yielded signals in the subtelomeric region of the der(7) chromosome indicating that the insertion of 1p13.2-31.2 into 7q36 was a direct insertion (data not shown).
Table 4
Results of the FISH analysis to determine the extent of the deletion in 1p13.2
BAC
Accession number
Region encompassed by BACa
FISH signalsb noticed on
RP11-364B6
AC092506.3
104402065–104598344
der(7)
RP11-478L17
AL499605.6
106860590–107048939
der(7)
RP11-552M11
AL390195.10
111745104–111898211
–
RP11-426L16
AL603832.28
112991588–113185191
–
RP11-228G5
AL389921.12
113834485–113903248
–
RP11-473L1
AL390759.10
113903149–113974612
–
RP11-626F04
Not available
113927658–114090547
–
RP5-1073O3
AL137856.24
114408979–114523076
–
RP11-555K17
Not available
114240984–114420320
–
RP11-205J11
Not available
114314370–114488274
–
RP11-372O23
AC023551
114431960–114603500
–
RP11-686O08
Not available
114555843–114706316
–
RP11-735A14
Not available
115582551–115732971
–
RP5-1086K13
AL390066.5
116774543–116878153
–
RP5-871G17
AL359553.14
119719965–119818318
der(1)
RP11-323K8
AL512503.14
120270573–120380184
der(1)
a According to Ensembl version 43 (NCBI 36)
b In addition to those on the normal chromosome 1
–, These BAC probes did not hybridize to the der(1) and the der(7)
Parental origin of the chromosome 1 deletion
In order to determine the parental origin of the deleted chromosome 1, we analyzed polymorphic markers located within the deleted interval in both the patient and her family. These analyses indicated the loss of the paternal allele due to the deletion. Heterozygosity of the markers was observed in DNA isolated from paternal blood cells indicating that it is unlikely that the father possesses the deletion himself. However, gonosomal mosaicism cannot be unequivocally excluded.
CGH
CGH confirmed the deletion on Xp and was also suggestive of a deletion on 1p13. No loss of genetic material from 7q36 was however detected using this method.
Investigation of the X inactivation pattern
Analysis of polymorphic X chromosome markers demonstrated that the patient’s deletion occurred on the paternally inherited chromosome (data not shown). Investigation of the AR gene polymorphism revealed that the X chromosome harboring the deletion had been non-randomly inactivated (more than 95% skewed) in peripheral blood lymphocytes and skin fibroblasts from the patient (data not shown).
Discussion
Two structural chromosome rearrangements were detected in the patient described here: an interstitial deletion del(X)(p21p22.3) and a rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7 (Figs. 1–3). The Xp deletion appears to encompass at least 22 Mb and includes a number of genes known to be associated with mental retardation (listed in Table 3). Women with an Xp deletion may exhibit stigmata of Turner syndrome with mild mental retardation, but the phenotype is highly variable and influenced by the degree of favorable/unfavorable X-inactivation (reviewed in Wandstrat et al. 2000; Chocholska et al. 2006). Phenotypic features of the patient described here that might be causatively related to the Xp deletion are short stature, a broad chest and a lack of secondary sexual characteristics. However, the patient manifested non-random, favorable inactivation (more than 95% skewed) of the deletion-bearing X chromosome in both blood lymphocytes and skin fibroblasts. We may therefore surmise that additional genomic imbalances could have contributed to the severe phenotype of the patient. The rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7 was therefore further investigated by high resolution FISH. Probes mapping to the proximal breakpoint region on chromosome 1p13.2 identified a deletion of at least 5.1 Mb accompanying the insertion of 1p13.2-p31.2 into 7q36 (Table 4).
The chromosome 1 deletion identified in our patient occurred on the paternal chromosome within a gene-dense region; it spans at least 5.1 Mb but is no larger than 12.7 Mb. The 5.1 Mb segment that is minimally deleted encompasses 46 known genes and further 28 potential genes according to Ensembl (http://www.ensembl.org; Supplementary Table 1). Among the genes deleted in the patient is the haematopoietic-specific protein tyrosine phosphatase gene, PTPN22. Intriguingly, the 1858T allele of the PTPN22-C1858T single nucleotide polymorphism, which gives rise to a R620W amino acid substitution, has been associated with rheumatoid arthritis in Caucasian populations (Begovich et al. 2004; Bottini et al. 2004; Kyogoku et al. 2004; Carlton et al. 2005; reviewed by Gregersen et al. 2006; Michou et al. 2007). Contradictory results have however been reported regarding the influence of this SNP on juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Whilst no (or very little) influence has been reported by Seldin et al. (2005), a significant effect of R620W in juvenile idiopathic arthritis was observed by others (Hinks et al. 2005; Viken et al. 2005; Cinek et al. 2007). One function of PTPN22 is the dephosphorylation of Lck and other mediators of T cell receptor signaling (Hasegawa et al. 2004; Mustelin et al. 2004, 2005; Wu et al. 2006). Further, PTPN22 interacts via its SH3-binding sites with the c-Src tyrosine kinase Csk. In vitro experiments have shown that the W620 variant binds less efficiently to Csk (Begovich et al. 2004; Bottini et al. 2004). This notwithstanding, the R620W substitution increases the enzymatic activity of PTPN22 (Vang et al. 2005) and may therefore be regarded as a gain-of-function mutation which results in the down-regulation of T cell receptor signaling.
No inactivating mutations have so far been identified in the PTPN22 gene in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (Carlton et al. 2005). There is therefore no compelling evidence that the deletion of PTPN22 in the patient described here is causatively associated with her juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Moreover, we cannot rule out the possibility that the interchromosomal rearrangement might also be associated with a cryptic microdeletion at 7q36, the site of the insertion. Although we did not detect any loss of chromosome 7 material by CGH, this does not unequivocally exclude the presence of a small deletion in this region.
Constitutional deletions within the proximal short arm of chromosome 1 including band 1p13 are very rare events with only four reports having been published to date (Dockery and Van der Westhuyzen 1991; Tabata et al. 1991; Mattia et al. 1992; Bisgaard et al. 2007). The phenotypic anomalies associated with these deletions are summarized in Table 5. Only the deletion of the patient described by Bisgaard et al. has been investigated by molecular cytogenetic means, thereby enabling a direct comparison with the chromosome 1 deletion identified in the propositus described here. The deletion interval of the patient reported by Bisgaard et al. (2007) overlaps partially with the deletion found in our patient and also includes the PTPN22 gene. However, the 13 year-old patient was not reported to suffer from juvenile idiopathic arthritis.
Table 5
Summary of the phenotypic features of patients with deletions involving 1p13
Case no
Deletion
Age
Gender
Clinical phenotype
1a
del(1)(p22.3 → p13.3)
30 year-old
Female
Twins, growth and mental retardation, microcephaly, deafness, atresia of auditory canals, mild spastic palsy
2b
del(1)(p22.3 → p13.3)
7 months
Female
Severe tetralogy of Fallot, multiple congenital anomalies and dysmorphic features, growth and psychomotor retardation, epilepsy
3c
del(1)(p22.3 → p13)
22 months
Male
Developmental retardation, minor anomalies like ptosis, kyphoscoliosis, intestinal malrotation, hypotonia
4d
del(1)(1p13.1 → p21.1)
13 years
Female
Short stature, developmental delay, mental retardation, epilepsy diplegia, coloboma
a Twins described by Dockery and van der Westhuyzen (1991)
In order to determine whether segmental duplications might occur within the breakpoint region, potentially involving paralogous sequences in 7q36 and 1p13.1-31.3, we screened the Human Genome Segmental Duplication Database (http://www.projects.tcag.ca/humandup/). However, no such duplications were identified.
Common fragile sites are genomic regions prone to breakage under conditions of replication stress (reviewed by Glover et al. 2005). Currently, 84 common fragile sites are listed in the GDB Human Genome Database (http://www.gdb.org/). Interestingly, common fragile sites were found within two of the three breakpoint regions involved in the ins(7;1) rearrangement, at least at the level of resolution afforded by G-banded chromosomes: FRA7I in 7q36 (aphidicolin-type, GDB:119213) and FRA1C in 1p31.2 (aphidicolin-type, GDB:119170). Precise mapping of the breakpoints would however be needed to determine if these fragile sites had indeed been the target sites of this chromosomal rearrangement.
In conclusion, the rearrangement involving chromosomes 1 and 7 is not simply a balanced insertion of the 1p13.2-31.2 region into 7q36 but is rather a more complex lesion associated with the deletion of ∼5–13 Mb at 1p13.2. In addition to position effects affecting the expression of genes in the vicinity of the respective breakpoints, it is likely that sequence loss has contributed to the severe clinical phenotype exhibited by the patient. To our knowledge, this is the first example of a complex chromosomal rearrangement in a patient with severe psychomotor retardation in combination with juvenile idiopathic arthritis and serves to emphasize the importance of high-resolution analysis of the chromosomal breakpoint regions.
Declarations
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Antje Kollak and Helene Spöri for technical support.
Authors’ Affiliations
(1)
Department of Human Genetics, Institute of Human Genetics, University of Ulm
(2)
Institute of Medical Genetics, Cardiff University
References
Begovich AB, Carlton VE, Honigberg LA, Schrodi SJ, Chokkalingam AP, Alexander HC, Ardlie KG, Huang Q, Smith AM, Spoerke JM, Conn MT, Chang M, Chang SY, Saiki RK, Catanese JJ, Leong DU, Garcia VE, McAllister LB, Jeffery DA, Lee AT, Batliwalla F, Remmers E, Criswell LA, Seldin MF, Kastner DL, Amos CI, Sninsky JJ, Gregersen PK (2004) A missense single-nucleotide polymorphism in a gene encoding a protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPN22) is associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Hum Genet 75:330–337PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Bisgaard AM, Rasmussen LN, Moller HU, Kirchhoff M, Bryndorf T (2007) Interstitial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 1 (1p13.1-p21.1) in a girl with mental retardation, short stature and colobomata. Clin Dysmorphol 16:109–112PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Bottini N, Musumeci L, Alonso A, Rahmouni S, Nika K, Rostamkhani M, MacMurray J, Meloni GF, Lucarelli P, Pellecchia M, Eisenbarth GS, Comings D, Mustelin T (2004) A functional variant of lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase is associated with type I diabetes. Nat Genet 36:337–338PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Carlton VE, Hu X, Chokkalingam AP, Schrodi SJ, Brandon R, Alexander HC, Chang M, Catanese JJ, Leong DU, Ardlie KG, Kastner DL, Seldin MF, Criswell LA, Gregersen PK, Beasley E, Thomson G, Amos CI, Begovich AB (2005) PTPN22 genetic variation: evidence for multiple variants associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Hum Genet 77:567–581PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Carrel L, Willard HF (2005) X-inactivation profile reveals extensive variability in X-linked gene expression in females. Nature 434:400–404PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Chocholska S, Rossier E, Barbi G, Kehrer-Sawatzki H (2006) Molecular cytogenetic analysis of a familial interstitial deletion Xp22.2-22.3 with a highly variable phenotype in female carriers. Am J Med Genet A 140:604–610PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Cinek O, Hradsky O, Ahmedov G, Slavcev A, Kolouskova S, Kulich M, Sumnik Z (2007) No independent role of the -1123 G > C and+2740 A > G variants in the association of PTPN22 with type 1 diabetes and juvenile idiopathic arthritis in two Caucasian populations. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 76:297–303PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Glover TW, Arlt MF, Casper AM, Durkin SG (2005) Mechanisms of common fragile site instability. Hum Mol Genet 14:R197–R205PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Gregersen PK, Lee HS, Batliwalla F, Begovich AB (2006) PTPN22: setting thresholds for autoimmunity. Semin Immunol 18:214–223PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Gribble SM, Prigmore E, Burford DC, Porter KM, Ng BL, Douglas EJ, Fiegler H, Carr P, Kalaitzopoulos D, Clegg S, Sandstrom R, Temple IK, Youings SA, Thomas NS, Dennis NR, Jacobs PA, Crolla JA, Carter NP (2005) The complex nature of constitutional de novo apparently balanced translocations in patients presenting with abnormal phenotypes. J Med Genet 42:8–16PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Hasegawa K, Martin F, Huang G, Tumas D, Diehl L, Chan AC (2004) PEST domain-enriched tyrosine phosphatase (PEP) regulation of effector/memory T cells. Science 303:685–689PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Hinks A, Barton A, John S, Bruce I, Hawkins C, Griffiths CE, Donn R, Thomson W, Silman A, Worthington J (2005) Association between the PTPN22 gene and rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile idiopathic arthritis in a UK population: further support that PTPN22 is an autoimmunity gene. Arthritis Rheum 52:1694–1699PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Jacobs PA, Browne C, Gregson N, Joyce C, White H (1992) Estimates of the frequency of chromosome abnormalities detectable in unselected newborns using moderate levels of banding. J Med Genet 29:103–108PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Kallioniemi A, Kallioniemi OP, Sudar D, Rutovitz D, Gray JW, Waldman F, Pinkel D (1992) Comparative genomic hybridization for molecular cytogenetic analysis of solid tumors. Science 258:818–821PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Kyogoku C, Langefeld CD, Ortmann WA, Lee A, Selby S, Carlton VE, Chang M, Ramos P, Baechler EC, Batliwalla FM, Novitzke J, Williams AH, Gillett C, Rodine P, Graham RR, Ardlie KG, Gaffney PM, Moser KL, Petri M, Begovich AB, Gregersen PK, Behrens TW (2004) Genetic association of the R620W polymorphism of protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPN22 with human SLE. Am J Hum Genet 75:504–507PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mattia FR, Wardinsky TD, Tuttle DJ, Grix A Jr, Smith KA, Walling P (1992) Interstitial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 1 (46XY, del(1)(p13p22.3)). Am J Med Genet 44:551–554PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Michou L, Lasbleiz S, Rat AC, Migliorini P, Balsa A, Westhovens R, Barrera P, Alves H, Pierlot C, Glikmans E, Garnier S, Dausset J, Vaz C, Fernandes M, Petit-Teixeira E, Lemaire I, Pascual-Salcedo D, Bombardieri S, Dequeker J, Radstake TR, Van Riel P, van de Putte L, Lopes-Vaz A, Prum B, Bardin T, Dieude P, Cornelis F, European Consortium on Rheumatoid Arthritis Families (2007) Linkage proof for PTPN22, a rheumatoid arthritis susceptibility gene and a human autoimmunity gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:1649–1654PubMedPubMed CentralView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mustelin T, Alonso A, Bottini N, Huynh H, Rahmouni S, Nika K, Louis-dit-Sully C, Tautz L, Togo SH, Bruckner S, Mena-Duran AV, al-Khouri AM (2004) Protein tyrosine phosphatases in T cell physiology. Mol Immunol 41:687–700PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mustelin T, Vang T, Bottini N (2005) Protein tyrosine phosphatases and the immune response. Nat Rev Immunol 5:43–57PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Pai GS, Thomas GH, Mahoney W, Migeon BR (1980) Complex chromosome rearrangements. Report of a new case and literature review. Clin Genet 18:436–444PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Seldin MF, Shigeta R, Laiho K, Li H, Saila H, Savolainen A, Leirisalo-Repo M, Aho K, Tuomilehto-Wolf E, Kaarela K, Kauppi M, Alexander HC, Begovich AB, Tuomilehto J (2005) Finnish case–control and family studies support PTPN22 R620W polymorphism as a risk factor in rheumatoid arthritis, but suggest only minimal or no effect in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Genes Immun 6:720–722PubMedGoogle Scholar
Tabata H, Sone K, Kobayashi T, Yanagisawa T, Tamura T, Shimizu N, Kanbe Y, Tashiro M, Ono S, Kuroume T (1991) Short arm deletion of chromosome 1: del(1)(p13.3 p22.3) in a female infant with an extreme tetralogy of Fallot. Clin Genet 39:132–135PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Vang T, Congia M, Macis MD, Musumeci L, Orru V, Zavattari P, Nika K, Tautz L, Tasken K, Cucca F, Mustelin T, Bottini N (2005) Autoimmune-associated lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase is a gain-of-function variant. Nat Genet 37:1317–1319PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Vermeulen S, Menten B, Van Roy N, Van Limbergen H, De Paepe A, Mortier G, Speleman F (2004) Molecular cytogenetic analysis of complex chromosomal rearrangements in patients with mental retardation and congenital malformations: delineation of 7q21.11 breakpoints. Am J Med Genet A 124:10–18View ArticleGoogle Scholar
Viken MK, Amundsen SS, Kvien TK, Boberg KM, Gilboe IM, Lilleby V, Sollid LM, Forre OT, Thorsby E, Smerdel A, Lie BA (2005) Association analysis of the 1858C > T polymorphism in the PTPN22 gene in juvenile idiopathic arthritis and other autoimmune diseases. Genes Immun 6:271–273PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Wandstrat AE, Conroy JM, Zurcher VL, Pasztor LM, Clark BA, Zackowski JL, Schwartz S (2000) Molecular and cytogenetic analysis of familial Xp deletions. Am J Med Genet 94:163–169PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Warburton D (1991) De novo balanced chromosome rearrangements and extra marker chromosomes identified at prenatal diagnosis: clinical significance and distribution of breakpoints. Am J Hum Genet 49:995–1013PubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Wirth J, Nothwang HG, van der Maarel S, Menzel C, Borck G, Lopez-Pajares I, Brondum-Nielsen K, Tommerup N, Bugge M, Ropers HH, Haaf T (1999) Systematic characterisation of disease associated balanced chromosome rearrangements by FISH: cytogenetically and genetically anchored YACs identify microdeletions and candidate regions for mental retardation genes. J Med Genet 36:271–278PubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Wu J, Katrekar A, Honigberg LA, Smith AM, Conn MT, Tang J, Jeffery D, Mortara K, Sampang J, Williams SR, Buggy J, Clark JM (2006) Identification of substrates of human protein-tyrosine phosphatase PTPN22. J Biol Chem 281:11002–11010PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
